★ 7.5 TOOLS OF RESEARCH :-
Action Research is more of a holistic approach to problem-solving, rather than a single method for collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for several different research tools to be used while the project is conducted. These various methods, which are generally common to the classroom research paradigm, include: Observation, Self-Reports, Interaction with Children, Children’s Diaries, Cumulative Record, Anecdotal Record and Reflective Journals.
★ 7.5.1 Observation - 1 :-
Observation is a method of measuring children’s behaviours directly by watching the classroom events or behaviours. It is the process of gathering firsthand information by observing children in their natural settings. Generally, the data that is collected from this procedure focuses on the frequency with which specific behaviours or types of behaviour occur in the classroom and measure their duration. Classroom observation is widely used as a method for classroom research as well as for classroom performance appraisal.
Observation as a research technique or method implies several features:
(a) the collection of evidence,
(b) the examination or analysis of the evidence, and
(c) the formation of significant judgments based on the evidence and the subsequent implications, such as changes and improvements, to accepted practices these judgments may entail.
♦ Types of Observation
There are varied types of observation that can be used in a classroom. Generally we may divide observation into three types- i) controlled, ii) natural and iii) participant observation
Controlled observation: In this type of observation, you may plan in advance where the observation will be done, the time and the groups of participants on whom it has to be done. You can use a standardized procedure to observe the participants. Observed behaviour is systematically classified into distinct categories.
To measure the intensity of behaviour, scale can be used and to describe the characteristics, coding can be done using letters or numbers. Coding of the categories on the schedule is done to quantify the collected data into statistics. For example, if you wish to observe the behaviour patterns of boys and girls in the playground, you might note that the boys engage more in risky behaviour involving physical movements as compared to girls.
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★ 7.5.1 Observation - 2 :-
To look for the cause, you would have to make certain observations and do categorization. Due to more number of boys in the playground, it may be observed that boys are engaged in risky behaviour. It may be observed that in reality only two or three risk taking individuals are present and the others are simply following suit. In addition to making a count of number of boys, you have to record the number of individuals doing the activities. In this example, you would record the individual’s behaviour along with the count of number of incidents.
Natural observation: In this type of observation, you may use a systematic set of rules for recording and classifying events. It is perceived to be as objective as possible with least intervention of the observer in the process. The result is expressed in quantitative terms. For example, you want to study the risk taking behaviours in adolescents when placed in settings such as mountaineering, rock climbing, bungee jumping, and river rafting. You would then observe the adolescents and record the incidences involving risk taking behaviour in each setting.
Participant observation: In this type of observation, there exists a direct relationship between the observer and the participant. A variety of tools such as, checklists, rating scales, field notes and audio-visual recordings can be used for this type of observation. For example, you wish to study the interest in subjects among the secondary school students. For this, you would observe the class and make note of the children who were actively involved in the class of a particular subject. On the basis of the academic performance of children, you would get an insight into the choices of your children and try to adopt strategies in teaching to attract them to other subjects as well and improve their overall performance.
Check Your Progress 2
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
i) Suppose you want to observe students’ participation in classroom learning. On what basis would you observe them? Frame criteria for observing students’ participation in the classroom.
★ 7.5.2 Self Reports - 3 :-
♦ Interview
You know that interview is a face to face conversation between two people-the interviewer and the interviewee. Interviews can be structured whereby there is a predetermined set of questions or unstructured whereby no questions are decided in advance.
There are various types of interview. Next we discuss about the three types of interview – i) structured interview, ii) semi-structured interview and iii) unstructured interview
♦ Structured interview: In this, the interviewer has to strictly follow the schedule and ask them questions in the order provided. The responses given by the interviewee do not affect the nature of the questions to be asked by the interviewers.
Characteristics of the Structured Interview
♦ The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.
♦ The questions are created prior to the interview.
♦ More closed-ended questions are included often.
♦ As the same questions are repeated there is consistency from interview to interview.
♦ The interviewer never provides his or her opinion in the interview.
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★ 7.5.2 Self Reports - 2 :-
♦ Types of questionnaire
Close ended questionnaire: This type of questionnaire consists of questions which have fixed number of response options. Respondents are asked to check the options that are best suited to them. Responses in such questionnaires may be in the form of Yes/No, Agree/Disagree etc. Example: “Cricket is a game that can be played by anyone” Agree/Disagree.
On the other hand, they do not enable respondents to add any remarks, qualifications and explanations to the categories.
Open ended questionnaire: Open questions are those questions which invite the respondent to provide their own answers and provide qualitative data. This type of questionnaire consists of those questions which require free responses on the part of the respondents. The maximum word limit may be given here. For example: ‘Give the two causes of degradation of quality in education.’ Open-ended questions are useful if the possible answers are unknown or the questionnaire is exploratory.
They also enable respondents to answer as much as they wish, and are particularly suitable for investigating complex issues, to which simple answers cannot be provided. Although these types of questions are more difficult to analyse they can produce more in-depth responses relating to what the participant actually thinks rather than being restricted by categories.
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★ 7.5.2 Self Reports - 1 :-
Another method to collect data is self-report, in which you respond to questions about yourselves regarding a wide variety of issues such as personality traits, moods, thoughts, attitudes, preferences, and behaviours. A self report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. In fact, much of social science knowledge and theory are based largely on self-report data. Self-report research requires the collection of standardized, quantifiable information from all members of the population or sample.
In order to obtain comparable data from all research participants, the same questions must be asked. Self-report approaches require individuals to respond to a series of statements or questions about themselves. For example, a survey about local schools might ask respondents questions such as “Do you believe the cost of education in our community is too high?” Respondents would self-report their views by marking “yes,” “uncertain,” or “no.”
The most common forms of self-report are questionnaires and interview.
♦ Questionnaire
Questionnaires are a type of self-report which consists of a set of questions usually in a highly structured written form. It is used when factual information from a respondent is needed. A number of questions in the questionnaire are given to the examinee and s/he answers these questions according to her/his own will. In the next paragraph we will discuss about the various types of questionnaire.
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★ 7.5.4 Children’s Diaries :-
Children can be encouraged to write about their daily life and experiences for personal recollection. These diaries are very personal though some may publish them later. In whatever form, the notion of a diary is an increasingly relevant way to capture the practices and experiences of everyday life.
These diaries have many advantages over other data collections methods. They are:
1) more accurate details are provided;
2) more information is obtained; and
3) They supplement information collected through other methods of obtaining information.
Within the autobiographical tradition, diaries are one of the ‘documents of life’, that is a self-revealing record that intentionally or unintentionally yields information regarding the structure, dynamics and functioning of the author’s mental life.
Sample Student Diary
Diary of Aruna,
Xthclass student
Monday Class test today! I got up late. I forgot to keep the alarm. My bus will reach by 8.30am. Took a quick bath changed to uniform and ran to the bus stop with the bag. I did not have any breakfast and did not look at my pet cat. Anyway, I reached school on time. I got anxious about the examination that has to do today. Last class test was not bad at all. But I am panic when I attempt essay questions whether I will get time to complete the answers. Teachers said with practice I will be able to do. I have decided to practice writing answers to essay questions within the allotted time at home. Activity 3: What would you infer from her dairy? Interpret it.
★ 7.5.3 Interaction with Children :-
When we look at what teachers actually do each day that makes a difference in children’s lives, there is clear evidence that it is the daily interactions that teachers have with children that are most important. It can occur between the teacher and learners, and/or between learners themselves, either collectively or individually.
You know that in a classroom, interaction takes place between teacher and learner as well as learner and learner. Learners will get more knowledge from the lessons when they actively participate in their learning or the teacher participates them in learning activities. These forms are called teacher-learner interaction.
Effective teacher-student interaction creates:
Emotional support: Understanding children in difficulties and assuring them support
Classroom organization: Involving students who appear to be isolated in class activities.
Instructional support: Providing remedial classes or arranging peer tutoring.
Check Your Progress 4
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
i) Observe a classroom interaction. Describe what you observe. In which category of effective teacher-student interaction does it come, and why?
★ 7.5.2 Self Reports - 4 :-
♦ Semi-structured interview: A semi-structured interview is a type where the interviewer has a list of topics on which conversation has to be made. Interviewer asks the questions and on basis of the answer provided, can change or move away from the list. The aim is to follow the order but depending on the responses the course of action can change.
♦ Characteristics of Semi-structured interviews
♦ The interview is conducted with a list of questions as in the case of structured interview but the interviewer may add or omit questions as per the situations.
♦ There is more demand on the interviewer to act according to the situation
Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interviewing is recommended only when the researcher has developed enough experience and in-depth understanding about his or her topic of interest to have a clear agenda for the discussion and is open to revision by respondents.
♦ Advantages of Self-Report
The strengths of self-report methods are:
1) The respondents describe their own experiences.
2) Researcher can collect data from large sample at low cost.
3) Reseacher can cover large number of variables.
♦ Disadvantages of Self-Report
The disadvantages of self-report methods are:
1) Participants may not cooperate and may mislead.
2) Participants may not be honest.
3) Questions may not be understood correctly due to language problem.
4) Response rate of mailed questionnaires are very low.
5) Questions may guide the respondent to give a particular reply.
Check Your Progress 3
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
i) Differentiate between questionnaire and interview
Activity: 2 Have you ever faced any interview – for studies or for a job? In which category of interview does it come and why? Give reasons.
★ 7.5.6 Anecdotal Record - 1 :-
An anecdotal record is the observed behaviour of the child. It is a record of some significant episode in the life of a child that sheds light on the conduct, thinking, skills and capabilities revealing significant features and characteristics about his/her personality (CCE, CBSE).
Teacher-generated anecdotal records provide an insider’s perspective of the child’s educational experience. Anecdotal record includes the description of the performance, events or activities going on in the school hours or may be from the bus stop, in the assembly, classroom, playground, pair/group activity, laboratory, dining hall or performance that a learner has completed - anything, anytime, anywhere. You may use anecdotal record for the following purposes.
♦ To get a longitudinal qualitative picture of the behavioural changes in the life of each child.
♦ To know the physical, social, economic, aesthetic and cognitive development of a child.
♦ To assess children in the classroom as well as outside classroom activities.
♦ To record documents of a child’s growth and trends.
♦ To identify the child’s attitude, current skill level, interests and skills.
♦ To record qualitative information like details about a child’s specific behaviour or the conversation between two children.
♦ To write valid and reliable observation - positive as well as negative, for instance, participation in group, fights, quarrels, failure to attempt or complete assignments etc. related with a child.
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★ 7.5.5 Cumulative Record - 1 :-
A cumulative record is a systematic account of information about a student. It is an evaluation tool which presents a comprehensive record of the achievement of each student in different aspects such as physical, academic, moral, social and health aspects. The information written in the cumulative record cards is collected from different sources over a period of time. It is a record of child indicating growth and development while in school in all aspects from beginning to the end of his school life. The Secondary Education Commission emphasized the importance of cumulative record card in the following words:
“Neither the external examination nor the internal examination, singly or together, can give a complete and correct picture of pupil’s all-round progress at any particular stage of his education, yet it is important for us to assess this, in order to determine his future course of study or future vocation. For this purpose, a proper system of school records should be maintained for every pupil indicating the work done by him in the school from day-to-day, from month-to-month, from term-to- term, and from year-to-year. Such school records will present a clear and continuous statement of the attainments of the child in different intellectual pursuits throughout successive stages of his education.”
♦ Need of the Cumulative Record
The cumulative record of a child is needed for the following important points.
♦ To give a complete picture of a child’s all- round progress in different areas i.e. physical, academic, moral, social and health.
♦ To assess the child’s potentialities, interests, aptitude and talents.
♦ To provide proper guidance and counselling taking into consideration, the child’s scholastic and co- scholastic achievements.
♦ To help parents and teachers in the placement of the child after the completion of study.
♦ To help in identifying abnormal behaviour of children and those who are weak in studies.
♦ To help in solving the problems of the child.
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★ 7.5.5 Cumulative Record - 2 :-
♦ Content of a Cumulative Record Card (CRC)
The cumulative record card records the following information regarding different aspects of children’s development:
♦ Personal data - Personal data gives introductory information about a child like her/ his name, sex, date of birth, age, permanent address, parents’ name and family background.
♦ Academic data - It deals with the information about the previous schools attended, present class, roll number, examinations appeared, results, division and percentage of marks.
♦ Health data - It reveals information regarding height, weight, blood pressure, communicable diseases if any, treatments given, food habits, exercise, parental disease if any.
♦ Co-curricular activities data - The child’s participation in different co-curricular activities, leadership qualities, certificates awarded, prizes and medals received are recorded in it.
♦ Personality characteristics - This reveals the psychological aspects like intellectual ability, self- confidence, emotional stability, leadership qualities, tolerance, and sense of responsibility etc.
♦ Record of counselling and guidance - Any problems found with the child, date of interview, reasons discovered, remedial measures taken, follow up programmes etc. are mentioned.
♦ General over all Remarks - General remarks by the class teacher and Headmaster on the performance and talents of the child.
Activity 4
Prepare a child’s cumulative record card on the basis of contents of CRC given above.
★ 7.5.7 Reflective Journals - 1 :-
Reflective journals are notebooks which are filed, containing children’s writing about their school activities and reflecting on their own thoughts. The act of reflecting on thoughts, ideas, feelings, and their own learning encourages the development of meta-cognitive skills by helping children self-evaluate and sort what they know from what they do not know. It is a piece of writing which allows children to record thoughts and insights about their own learning experience. It encourages children to review and consolidate learning, to evaluate performance, to plan future learning based on past learning experience.
In such a way, children become capable to take charge of their own learning, and eventually to develop into independent lifelong learners. The process of examining one’s own thoughts and feelings is particularly helpful for children who are learning new concepts or beginning to grapple with complex issues that go beyond right and wrong answers.Reflective journals are records maintained by children in which they write their experiences regarding some activities in the school or in their surroundings.
The teachers ask them to note down whatever they found to be different or what made them think and ponder about certain learning experiences. They are advised by the teachers to make a noting in the file which they are free to pick up to write their experiences and keep adding their views as and when required. Journals can also be subject specific where children can point out their hard spots and seek answer from friends and teachers. A child’s writing style for journals and logs can be informal and sometimes inappropriate.
However, to help children learn more about a particular subject or content, you can require children to write more formal entries using correct terminology, facts, and with connections to course content. A reflective journal is a tool that allows children to reflect on and write about progress in their learning. They can identify and reflect on successes and challenges. You can gain information on what children think and feel in a non-threatening way. An example of a Reflective Learning Journal is given below:
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★ 7.5.7 Reflective Journals - 2 :-
♦ Writing your Reflective Learning Journal
In your B.Ed. programme, you have to do observation of schools for 4 weeks. You have to observe the functioning of the school, duties performed by teachers, role of students and their activities in school, and also observe the classrooms. After 4 weeks you have to give a report of your observations. For this, you could practise journal writing. In each journal entry, you might therefore want to write down your reaction, comment, personal feelings, and suggestion to improve teaching-learning activities. For example, you can start by thinking:
➤ What’s my opinion about the school?
➤ Does the school reflect an inclusive nature?
➤ How is the leadership style of the head of the school?
➤ What are the duties I have to perform besides those in the classroom?
➤ What approach I have to adopt in my class?
➤ How can I relate the teaching –learning activities of the school to what I have learnt in the course?
♦ Notes:
➤ Guided questions provided should be in open-ended structure thereby giving chance for in-depth thinking.
➤ Only provide a few guided questions so that quality reflection of children’s learning is possible.
♦ How could it be used?
➤ For children’s reflection during a unit, topic or project.
➤ As a quick and simple tool for children’s self-assessment at the end of a class.
➤ To enable children to identify and reflect on their success and challenges.
➤ As a communication tool for children and teachers.
➤ As a process to refocus on children’s learning.
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★ 7.5.7 Reflective Journals - 3 :-
♦ Importance of using it
➤ It is a simple process
➤ It promotes students’ higher order thinking and enables them to reflect on what has been achieved during a lesson and where future efforts and support should be focused in the next session.
➤ It helps children to self assess and to set goals for their future learning.
➤ It engages many of the children in their learning and gives them a sense of ownership and control.
➤ It promotes literacy, especially if used in learning areas such as Mathematics, Arts, Science, ICT and Interpersonal development.
Activity 6
Prepare questions for writing reflective journal by your language students.
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